# Cubic Braid Groups#

This module is devoted to factor groups of the Artin braid groups, such that the images $$s_i$$ of the braid generators have order three:

$s_i^3 = 1.$

In general these groups have firstly been investigated by Coxeter, H.S.M. in: “Factor groups of the braid groups, Proceedings of the Fourth Canadian Mathematical Congress (Vancouver 1957), pp. 95-122”.

Coxeter showed, that these groups are finite as long as the number of strands is less than 6 and infinite else-wise. More explicitly the factor group on three strand braids is isomorphic to $$SL(2,3)$$, on four strand braids to $$GU(3,2)$$ and on five strand braids to $$Sp(4,3) \times C_3$$. Today, these finite groups are known as irreducible complex reflection groups enumerated in the Shephard-Todd classification as $$G_{4}$$, $$G_{25}$$ and $$G_{32}$$.

Coxeter realized these groups as subgroups of unitary groups with respect to a certain Hermitian form over the complex numbers (in fact over $$\QQ$$ adjoined with a primitive 12-th root of unity).

In “Einige endliche Faktorgruppen der Zopfgruppen” (Math. Z., 163 (1978), 291-302) J. Assion considered two series $$S(m)$$ and $$U(m)$$ of finite factors of these groups. The additional relations on the braid group generators $$\{ s_1, \cdots, s_{m-1}\}$$ are

$\begin{split}\begin{array}{lll} \mbox{S:} & s_3 s_1 t_2 s_1 t_2^{-1} t_3 t_2 s_1 t_2^{-1} t_3^{-1} = 1 & \mbox{ for } m >= 5 \mbox{ in case } S(m)\\ \mbox{U:} & t_1 t_3 = 1 & \mbox{ for } m >= 5 \mbox{ in case } U(m) \end{array}\end{split}$

where $$t_i = (s_i s_{i+1})^3$$. He showed that each series of finite cubic braid group factors must be an epimorphic image of one of his two series, as long as the groups with less than 5 strands are the full cubic braid groups, whereas the group on 5 strands is not. He realized the groups $$S(m)$$ as symplectic groups over $$GF(3)$$ (resp. subgroups therein) and $$U(m)$$ as general unitary groups over $$GF(4)$$ (resp. subgroups therein).

All the groups considered by Coxeter and Assion are considered as finitely presented groups together with the classical realizations. It also allows for the conversion maps between the two realizations. In addition, we can construct other realizations and maps to matrix groups with help of the Burau representation. In case gap3 and CHEVIE are installed, the reflection groups (via the gap3 interface) are available, too. This can be done using the methods as_classical_group(), as_matrix_group(), as_permutation_group(), and as_reflection_group().

REFERENCES:

AUTHORS:

• Sebastian Oehms 2019-02-16, initial version.

sage.groups.cubic_braid.AssionGroupS(n=None, names='s')#

Construct cubic braid groups CubicBraidGroup which have been investigated by J.Assion using the notation S(m). This function is a short hand cut for setting the construction arguments cbg_type=CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS and default names='s'.

INPUT:

• n – integer (optional); the number of strands

• names – (default: 's') string or list/tuple/iterable of strings

EXAMPLES:

sage: S3 = AssionGroupS(3);  S3
Assion group on 3 strands of type S
sage: S3x = CubicBraidGroup(3, names='s', cbg_type=CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS); S3x
Assion group on 3 strands of type S
sage: S3 == S3x
True

sage.groups.cubic_braid.AssionGroupU(n=None, names='u')#

Construct cubic braid groups as instance of CubicBraidGroup which have been investigated by J.Assion using the notation U(m). This function is a short hand cut for setting the construction arguments cbg_type=CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionU and default names='u'.

INPUT:

• n – integer (optional); the number of strands

• names – (default: 's') string or list/tuple/iterable of strings

EXAMPLES:

sage: U3 = AssionGroupU(3);  U3
Assion group on 3 strands of type U
sage: U3x = CubicBraidGroup(3, names='u', cbg_type=CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionU); U3x
Assion group on 3 strands of type U
sage: U3 == U3x
True

class sage.groups.cubic_braid.CubicBraidElement(parent, x, check=True)#

Elements of cubic factor groups of the braid group.

For more information see CubicBraidGroup.

EXAMPLES:

sage: C4.<c1, c2, c3> = CubicBraidGroup(4); C4
Cubic Braid group on 4 strands
sage: ele1 = c1*c2*c3^-1*c2^-1
sage: ele2 = C4((1, 2, -3, -2))
sage: ele1 == ele2
True

braid()#

Return the canonical braid preimage of self as a Braid.

EXAMPLES:

sage: C3.<c1, c2> = CubicBraidGroup(3)
sage: c1.parent()
Cubic Braid group on 3 strands
sage: c1.braid().parent()
Braid group on 3 strands

burau_matrix(root_bur=None, domain=None, characteristic=None, var='t', reduced=False)#

Return the Burau matrix of the cubic braid coset.

This method uses the same method belonging to Braid, but reduces the indeterminate to a primitive sixth (resp. twelfth in case reduced='unitary') root of unity.

INPUT (all arguments are optional keywords):

• root_bur – six (resp. twelfth) root of unity in some field (default: root of unity over $$\QQ$$)

• domain – (default: cyclotomic field of order 3 and degree 2, resp. the domain of $$root_bur$$ if given) base ring for the Burau matrix

• characteristic – integer giving the characteristic of the domain (default: 0 or the characteristic of domain if given)

• var – string used for the indeterminate name in case root_bur must be constructed in a splitting field

• reduced – boolean or string (default: False); for more information see the documentation of burau_matrix() of Braid

OUTPUT:

The Burau matrix of the cubic braid coset with entries in the domain given by the options. In case the option reduced='unitary' is given a triple consisting of the Burau matrix, its adjoined and the Hermitian form is returned.

EXAMPLES:

sage: C3.<c1, c2> = CubicBraidGroup(3)
sage: ele = c1*c2*c1
sage: BuMa = ele.burau_matrix(); BuMa
[  -zeta3         1     zeta3]
[  -zeta3 zeta3 + 1         0]
[       1         0         0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Cyclotomic Field of order 3 and degree 2
sage: BuMa == ele.burau_matrix(characteristic = 0)
True
sage: BuMa = ele.burau_matrix(domain=QQ); BuMa
[-t + 1      1  t - 1]
[-t + 1      t      0]
[     1      0      0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Number Field in t with defining polynomial t^2 - t + 1
sage: BuMa = ele.burau_matrix(domain = QQ[I, sqrt(3)]); BuMa
[ 1/2*sqrt3*I + 1/2                  1 -1/2*sqrt3*I - 1/2]
[ 1/2*sqrt3*I + 1/2 -1/2*sqrt3*I + 1/2                  0]
[                 1                  0                  0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Number Field in I with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 over its base field
sage: BuMa = ele.burau_matrix(characteristic=7); BuMa
[3 1 4]
[3 5 0]
[1 0 0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Finite Field of size 7
sage: BuMa = ele.burau_matrix(characteristic=2); BuMa
[t + 1     1 t + 1]
[t + 1     t     0]
[    1     0     0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Finite Field in t of size 2^2
sage: F4.<r64> = GF(4)
sage: BuMa = ele.burau_matrix(root_bur=r64); BuMa
[r64 + 1       1 r64 + 1]
[r64 + 1     r64       0]
[      1       0       0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Finite Field in r64 of size 2^2
sage: BuMa = ele.burau_matrix(domain=GF(5)); BuMa
[2*t + 2       1 3*t + 3]
[2*t + 2 3*t + 4       0]
[      1       0       0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Finite Field in t of size 5^2
sage: BuMa, BuMaAd, H = ele.burau_matrix(reduced='unitary'); BuMa
[       0 zeta12^3]
[zeta12^3        0]
sage: BuMa * H * BuMaAd == H
True
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Cyclotomic Field of order 12 and degree 4
sage: BuMa, BuMaAd, H  = ele.burau_matrix(domain = QQ[I, sqrt(3)], reduced='unitary'); BuMa
[0 I]
[I 0]
sage: BuMa.base_ring()
Number Field in I with defining polynomial x^2 + 1 over its base field

class sage.groups.cubic_braid.CubicBraidGroup(names, cbg_type=None)#

Factor groups of the Artin braid group mapping their generators to elements of order 3.

These groups are implemented as a particular case of finitely presented groups similar to the BraidGroup_class.

A cubic braid group can be created by giving the number of strands, and the name of the generators in a similar way as it works for the BraidGroup_class.

INPUT:

• names – see the corresponding documentation of BraidGroup_class.

• cbg_type – (default: CubicBraidGroup.type.Coxeter; see explanation below) enum type CubicBraidGroup.type

Setting the keyword cbg_type to one on the values CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS or CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionU, the additional relations due to Assion are added:

$\begin{split}\begin{array}{lll} \mbox{S:} & s_3 s_1 t_2 s_1 t_2^{-1} t_3 t_2 s_1 t_2^{-1} t_3^{-1} = 1 & \mbox{ for } m >= 5 \mbox{ in case } S(m), \\ \mbox{U:} & t_1 t_3 = 1 & \mbox{ for } m >= 5 \mbox{ in case } U(m), \end{array}\end{split}$

where $$t_i = (s_i s_{i+1})^3$$. If cbg_type == CubicBraidGroup.type.Coxeter (default) only the cubic relation on the generators is active (Coxeter’s case of investigation). Note that for $$n = 2, 3, 4$$, the groups do not differ between the three possible values of cbg_type (as finitely presented groups). However, the CubicBraidGroup.type.Coxeter, CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS and CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionU are different, so they have different classical realizations implemented.

Instances can also be constructed more easily by using CubicBraidGroup(), AssionGroupS() and AssionGroupU().

EXAMPLES:

sage: U3 = CubicBraidGroup(3, cbg_type=CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionU); U3
Assion group on 3 strands of type U
sage: U3.gens()
(c0, c1)


Alternative possibilities defining U3:

sage: U3 = AssionGroupU(3); U3
Assion group on 3 strands of type U
sage: U3.gens()
(u0, u1)
sage: U3.<u1,u2> = AssionGroupU(3); U3
Assion group on 3 strands of type U
sage: U3.gens()
(u1, u2)


Alternates naming the generators:

sage: U3 = AssionGroupU(3, 'a, b'); U3
Assion group on 3 strands of type U
sage: U3.gens()
(a, b)
sage: C3 = CubicBraidGroup(3, 't'); C3
Cubic Braid group on 3 strands
sage: C3.gens()
(t0, t1)
sage: U3.is_isomorphic(C3)
#I  Forcing finiteness test
True
sage: U3.as_classical_group()
Subgroup generated by [(1,7,6)(3,19,14)(4,15,10)(5,11,18)(12,16,20), (1,12,13)(2,15,19)(4,9,14)(5,18,8)(6,21,16)]
of (The projective general unitary group of degree 3 over Finite Field of size 2)
sage: C3.as_classical_group()
Subgroup with 2 generators (
[  E(3)^2        0]  [       1 -E(12)^7]
[-E(12)^7        1], [       0   E(3)^2]
) of General Unitary Group of degree 2 over Universal Cyclotomic Field with respect to positive definite hermitian form
[-E(12)^7 + E(12)^11                  -1]
[                 -1 -E(12)^7 + E(12)^11]


REFERENCES:

Element#

alias of CubicBraidElement

as_classical_group(embedded=False)#

Create an isomorphic image of self as a classical group according to the construction given by Coxeter resp. Assion.

INPUT:

• embedded – boolean (default: False); this boolean effects the cases of Assion groups when they are realized as projective groups only. More precisely: if self is of cbg_type CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS (for example) and the number of strands n is even, than its classical group is a subgroup of PSp(n,3) (being centralized by the element self.centralizing_element(projective=True)). By default this group will be given. Setting embedded = True the classical realization is given as subgroup of its classical enlargement with one more strand (in this case as subgroup of Sp(n,3)).

OUTPUT:

Depending on the type of self and the number of strands an instance of Sp(n-1,3), GU(n-1,2), subgroup of PSp(n,3), PGU(n,2), or a subgroup of GU(n-1, UCF) (cbg_type == CubicBraidGroup.type.Coxeter) with respect to a certain Hermitian form attached to the Burau representation (used by Coxeter and Squier). Here UCF stands for the universal cyclotomic field.

EXAMPLES:

sage: U3 = AssionGroupU(3)
sage: U3Cl = U3.as_classical_group(); U3Cl
Subgroup generated by [(1,7,6)(3,19,14)(4,15,10)(5,11,18)(12,16,20), (1,12,13)(2,15,19)(4,9,14)(5,18,8)(6,21,16)]
of (The projective general unitary group of degree 3 over Finite Field of size 2)
sage: U3Clemb = U3.as_classical_group(embedded=True); U3Clemb
Subgroup with 2 generators (
[0 0 a]  [a + 1     a     a]
[0 1 0]  [    a a + 1     a]
[a 0 a], [    a     a a + 1]
) of General Unitary Group of degree 3 over Finite Field in a of size 2^2
sage: u = U3([-2,1,-2,1]); u
(u1^-1*u0)^2
sage: uCl = U3Cl(u); uCl
(1,16)(2,9)(3,10)(4,19)(6,12)(7,20)(13,21)(14,15)
sage: uCle = U3Clemb(u); uCle
[a + 1 a + 1     1]
[a + 1     0     a]
[   1     a     a]
sage: U3(uCl) == u
True
sage: U3(uCle) == u
True
sage: U4 = AssionGroupU(4)
sage: U4Cl = U4.as_classical_group(); U4Cl
General Unitary Group of degree 3 over Finite Field in a of size 2^2
sage: U3Clemb.ambient() == U4Cl
True
sage: C4 = CubicBraidGroup(4)
sage: C4Cl = C4.as_classical_group(); C4Cl
Subgroup with 3 generators (
[  E(3)^2        0        0]  [       1 -E(12)^7        0]
[-E(12)^7        1        0]  [       0   E(3)^2        0]
[       0        0        1], [       0 -E(12)^7        1],

[       1        0        0]
[       0        1 -E(12)^7]
[       0        0   E(3)^2]
) of General Unitary Group of degree 3 over Universal Cyclotomic Field with respect to positive definite hermitian form
[-E(12)^7 + E(12)^11                  -1                   0]
[                 -1 -E(12)^7 + E(12)^11                  -1]
[                  0                  -1 -E(12)^7 + E(12)^11]

as_matrix_group(root_bur=None, domain=None, characteristic=None, var='t', reduced=False)#

Creates an epimorphic image of self as a matrix group by use of the burau representation.

INPUT:

• root_bur – (default: root of unity over $$\QQ$$) six (resp. twelfth) root of unity in some field

• domain – (default: cyclotomic field of order 3 and degree 2, resp. the domain of root_bur if given) base ring for the Burau matrix

• characteristic – integer (optional); the characteristic of the domain; if none of the keywords root_bur, domain and characteristic are given, the default characteristic is 3 (resp. 2) if self is of cbg_type CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS (resp. CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionU)

• var – string used for the indeterminate name in case root_bur must be constructed in a splitting field

• reduced – boolean (default: False); for more information see the documentation of Braid.burau_matrix()

EXAMPLES:

sage: C5 = CubicBraidGroup(5)
sage: C5Mch5 = C5.as_matrix_group(characteristic=5); C5Mch5
Matrix group over Finite Field in t of size 5^2 with 4 generators (
[2*t + 2 3*t + 4       0       0       0]
[     1       0       0       0       0]
[     0       0       1       0       0]
[     0       0       0       1       0]
[     0       0       0       0       1],

[     1       0       0       0       0]
[     0 2*t + 2 3*t + 4       0       0]
[     0       1       0       0       0]
[     0       0       0       1       0]
[     0       0       0       0       1],

[     1       0       0       0       0]
[     0       1       0       0       0]
[     0       0 2*t + 2 3*t + 4       0]
[     0       0       1       0       0]
[     0       0       0       0       1],

[     1       0       0       0       0]
[     0       1       0       0       0]
[     0       0       1       0       0]
[     0       0       0 2*t + 2 3*t + 4]
[     0       0       0       1       0]
)
sage: c = C5([3,4,-2,-3,1]); c
c2*c3*c1^-1*c2^-1*c0
sage: m = C5Mch5(c); m
[2*t + 2 3*t + 4       0       0       0]
[     0       0       0       1       0]
[2*t + 1       0 2*t + 2     3*t 3*t + 3]
[2*t + 2       0       0 3*t + 4       0]
[     0       0 2*t + 2 3*t + 4       0]
sage: m_back = C5(m)
sage: m_back == c
True
sage: U5 = AssionGroupU(5); U5
Assion group on 5 strands of type U
sage: U5Mch3 = U5.as_matrix_group(characteristic=3)
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
ValueError: Burau representation does not factor through the relations

as_permutation_group(use_classical=True)#

Return a permutation group isomorphic to self that has a group isomorphism from self as a conversion.

INPUT:

• use_classical – boolean (default: True); the permutation group is calculated via the attached classical matrix group as this results in a smaller degree; if False, the permutation group will be calculated using self (as finitely presented group)

EXAMPLES:

sage: C3 = CubicBraidGroup(3)
sage: PC3 = C3.as_permutation_group()
sage: assert C3.is_isomorphic(PC3)  # random (with respect to the occurrence of the info message)
#I  Forcing finiteness test
sage: PC3.degree()
8
sage: c = C3([2,1-2])
sage: C3(PC3(c)) == c
True

as_reflection_group()#

Return an isomorphic image of self as irreducible complex reflection group.

This is possible only for the finite cubic braid groups of cbg_type CubicBraidGroup.type.Coxeter.

Note

This method uses the sage implementation of reflection group via the gap3 CHEVIE package. These must be installed in order to use this method.

EXAMPLES:

sage: C3.<c1,c2> = CubicBraidGroup(3)           # optional - gap3
sage: R3 = C3.as_reflection_group(); R3         # optional - gap3
Irreducible complex reflection group of rank 2 and type ST4
sage: R3.cartan_matrix()                        # optional - gap3
[-2*E(3) - E(3)^2           E(3)^2]
[        -E(3)^2 -2*E(3) - E(3)^2]
sage: R3.simple_roots()                         # optional - gap3
Finite family {1: (0, -2*E(3) - E(3)^2), 2: (2*E(3)^2, E(3)^2)}
sage: R3.simple_coroots()                       # optional - gap3
Finite family {1: (0, 1), 2: (1/3*E(3) - 1/3*E(3)^2, 1/3*E(3) - 1/3*E(3)^2)}


Conversion maps:

   sage: r = R3.an_element()                       # optional - gap3
sage: cr = C3(r); cr                            # optional - gap3
c1*c2
sage: mr = r.matrix(); mr                       # optional - gap3
[ 1/3*E(3) - 1/3*E(3)^2  2/3*E(3) + 1/3*E(3)^2]
[-2/3*E(3) + 2/3*E(3)^2  2/3*E(3) + 1/3*E(3)^2]
sage: C3Cl = C3.as_classical_group()            # optional - gap3
sage: C3Cl(cr)                                  # optional - gap3
[ E(3)^2    -E(4)]
[-E(12)^7        0]

The reflection groups can also be viewed as subgroups of unitary groups
over the universal cyclotomic field. Note that the unitary group
corresponding to the reflection group is isomorphic but different from
the classical group due to different hermitian forms for the unitary
groups they live in::

sage: C4 = CubicBraidGroup(4)                   # optional - gap3
sage: R4 = C4.as_reflection_group()             # optional - gap3
sage: R4.invariant_form()                       # optional - gap3
[1 0 0]
[0 1 0]
[0 0 1]
sage: _ == C4.classical_invariant_form()        # optional - gap3
False

braid_group()#

Return a BraidGroup with identical generators, such that there exists an epimorphism to self.

OUTPUT:

A BraidGroup having conversion maps to and from self (which is just a section in the latter case).

EXAMPLES:

sage: U5 = AssionGroupU(5); U5
Assion group on 5 strands of type U
sage: B5 = U5.braid_group(); B5
Braid group on 5 strands
sage: b = B5([4,3,2,-4,1])
sage: u = U5([4,3,2,-4,1])
sage: u == b
False
sage: b.burau_matrix()
[ 1 - t      t      0      0      0]
[ 1 - t      0      t      0      0]
[ 1 - t      0      0      0      t]
[ 1 - t      0      0      1 -1 + t]
[     1      0      0      0      0]
sage: u.burau_matrix()
[t + 1     t     0     0     0]
[t + 1     0     t     0     0]
[t + 1     0     0     0     t]
[t + 1     0     0     1 t + 1]
[    1     0     0     0     0]
sage: bU = U5(b)
sage: uB = B5(u)
sage: bU == u
True
sage: uB == b
True

cardinality()#

To avoid long wait-time on calculations the order will be obtained using the classical realization.

OUTPUT:

Cardinality of the group as Integer or infinity.

EXAMPLES:

sage: S15 = AssionGroupS(15)
sage: S15.order()
109777561863482259035023554842176139436811616256000
sage: C6 = CubicBraidGroup(6)
sage: C6.order()
+Infinity

centralizing_element(embedded=False)#

Return the centralizing element defined by the work of Assion (Hilfssatz 1.1.3 and 1.2.3).

INPUT:

• embedded – boolean (default; False); this boolean only effects the cases of Assion groups when they are realized as projective groups. More precisely: if self is of cbg_type CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS (for example) and the number of strands n is even, than its classical group is a subgroup of PSp(n,3) being centralized by the element return for option embedded=False. Otherwise the image of this element inside the embedded classical group will be returned (see option embedded of classical_group()).

OUTPUT:

Depending on the optional keyword a permutation as an element of PSp(n,3) (type S) or PGU(n,2) (type U) for n = 0 mod 2 (type S) resp. n = 0 mod 3 (type U) is returned. Otherwise, the centralizing element is a matrix belonging to Sp(n,3) resp. GU(n,2).

EXAMPLES:

sage: U3 = AssionGroupU(3);  U3
Assion group on 3 strands of type U
sage: U3Cl = U3.as_classical_group(); U3Cl
Subgroup generated by [(1,7,6)(3,19,14)(4,15,10)(5,11,18)(12,16,20), (1,12,13)(2,15,19)(4,9,14)(5,18,8)(6,21,16)]
of (The projective general unitary group of degree 3 over Finite Field of size 2)
sage: c = U3.centralizing_element(); c
(1,16)(2,9)(3,10)(4,19)(6,12)(7,20)(13,21)(14,15)
sage: c in U3Cl
True
sage: P = U3Cl.ambient_group()
sage: P.centralizer(c) == U3Cl
True


Embedded version:

sage: cm = U3.centralizing_element(embedded=True); cm
[a + 1 a + 1     1]
[a + 1     0     a]
[   1     a     a]
sage: U4 = AssionGroupU(4)
sage: U4Cl = U4.as_classical_group()
sage: cm in U4Cl
True
sage: [cm * U4Cl(g) == U4Cl(g) * cm for g in U4.gens()]
[True, True, False]

classical_invariant_form()#

Return the invariant form of the classical realization of self.

OUTPUT:

A square matrix of dimension according to the space the classical realization is operating on. In the case of the full cubic braid groups and of the Assion groups of cbg_type CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionU the matrix is Hermitian. In the case of the Assion groups of cbg_type CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS it is alternating. Note that the invariant form of the full cubic braid group on more than 5 strands is degenerated (causing the group to be infinite).

In the case of Assion groups having projective classical groups, the invariant form corresponds to the ambient group of its classical embedding.

EXAMPLES:

sage: S3 = AssionGroupS(3)
sage: S3.classical_invariant_form()
[0 1]
[2 0]
sage: S4 = AssionGroupS(4)
sage: S4.classical_invariant_form()
[0 0 0 1]
[0 0 1 0]
[0 2 0 0]
[2 0 0 0]
sage: S5 = AssionGroupS(5)
sage: S4.classical_invariant_form() == S5.classical_invariant_form()
True
sage: U4 = AssionGroupU(4)
sage: U4.classical_invariant_form()
[0 0 1]
[0 1 0]
[1 0 0]
sage: C5 = CubicBraidGroup(5)
sage: C5.classical_invariant_form()
[-E(12)^7 + E(12)^11                  -1                   0                   0]
[                -1 -E(12)^7 + E(12)^11                  -1                   0]
[                 0                  -1 -E(12)^7 + E(12)^11                  -1]
[                 0                   0                  -1 -E(12)^7 + E(12)^11]
sage: _.is_singular()
False
sage: C6 = CubicBraidGroup(6)
sage: C6.classical_invariant_form().is_singular()
True

codegrees()#

Return the codegrees of self.

This only makes sense when self is a finite reflection group.

EXAMPLES:

sage: CubicBraidGroup(5).codegrees()
(0, 6, 12, 18)

cubic_braid_subgroup(nstrands=None)#

Return a cubic braid group as subgroup of self on the first nstrands strands.

INPUT:

• nstrands – (default: self.strands() - 1) integer at least 1 and at most self.strands() giving the number of strands of the subgroup

Warning

Since self is inherited from UniqueRepresentation, the obtained instance is identical to other instances created with the same arguments (see example below). The ambient group corresponds to the last call of this method.

EXAMPLES:

sage: U5 = AssionGroupU(5)
sage: U3s = U5.cubic_braid_subgroup(3)
sage: u1, u2 = U3s.gens()
sage: u1 in U5
False
sage: U5(u1) in U5.gens()
True
sage: U3s is AssionGroupU(3)
True
sage: U3s.ambient() == U5
True

degrees()#

Return the degrees of self.

This only makes sense when self is a finite reflection group.

EXAMPLES:

sage: CubicBraidGroup(4).degrees()
(6, 9, 12)

index_set()#

Return the index set of self.

This is the set of integers $$0,\dots,n-2$$ where $$n$$ is the number of strands.

This is only used when self is a finite reflection group.

EXAMPLES:

sage: CubicBraidGroup(3).index_set()
[0, 1]

is_finite()#

Return if self is a finite group or not.

EXAMPLES:

sage: CubicBraidGroup(6).is_finite()
False
sage: AssionGroupS(6).is_finite()
True

order()#

To avoid long wait-time on calculations the order will be obtained using the classical realization.

OUTPUT:

Cardinality of the group as Integer or infinity.

EXAMPLES:

sage: S15 = AssionGroupS(15)
sage: S15.order()
109777561863482259035023554842176139436811616256000
sage: C6 = CubicBraidGroup(6)
sage: C6.order()
+Infinity

simple_reflections()#

Return the generators of self.

This is only used when self is a finite reflection group.

EXAMPLES:

sage: CubicBraidGroup(3).simple_reflections()
(c0, c1)

strands()#

Return the number of strands of the braid group whose image is self.

OUTPUT: Integer

EXAMPLES:

sage: C4 = CubicBraidGroup(4)
sage: C4.strands()
4

class type#

Bases: enum.Enum

Enum class to select the type of the group:

• Coxeter'C' the full cubic braid group.

• AssionS'S' finite factor group of type S considered by Assion

• AssionU'U' finite factor group of type U considered by Assion

EXAMPLES:

sage: S2 = CubicBraidGroup(2, cbg_type=CubicBraidGroup.type.AssionS); S2
Assion group on 2 strands of type S
sage: U3 = CubicBraidGroup(2, cbg_type='U')
Traceback (most recent call last):
...
TypeError: the cbg_type must be an instance of <enum 'CubicBraidGroup.type'>